Determining Competencies

This piece is part of a series exploring competency-based education (CBE). This piece focuses on how programs and faculty, whether fully implementing CBE or incorporating select elements, might determine high-quality competencies to guide assessments.

In education, there are a variety of terms used to describe the type of learning gains students are expected to achieve, including objectives, outcomes, and competencies. Although these terms are often used interchangeably, they are each unique and have distinct characteristics. Recognizing these differences enables faculty and programs to design assessments and instructional content more intentionally and precisely, ensuring alignment with the knowledge and skills students are meant to develop.

Learning outcomes, objectives, and competencies differ significantly in scope, detail, and time frame. Objectives are typically specific, short-term targets that describe what a student should be able to demonstrate at the end of a single module or lesson. For example, by the end of a module on financial statement analysis within an MBA in Finance course, students might be expected to calculate key financial ratios. Learning outcomes are broader than objectives, identifying what students are expected to know or achieve by the end of a course, spanning an entire academic term (Harden, 2002). In this case, an end-of-course learning outcome might be that students will be able to analyze financial statements to assess an organization's financial health. Competencies have the broadest scope, emphasizing the real-world application of skills, knowledge, and behaviors that students must demonstrate by the end of a program. A program-level competency for an MBA in Finance could be that graduates will be able to apply advanced financial analysis and strategic decision-making skills to solve complex business challenges in a global marketplace.

Learning outcomes rarely translate directly to competencies. Since competencies encompass entire programs, consensus is required among all stakeholders to determine the competencies and their criteria for demonstrated proficiency. Competencies are written as abilities that can and should extend beyond graduation into the workplace (Brauer, 2021). In fact, the term competency intentionally bridges the language gap between academia and the workplace, where it is already commonly used, though not universally. This connection in language is important, as an effective CBE program involves communication and collaboration with professional stakeholders in the field (Wagenaar, 2014).

While the content of competencies and the way they are assessed may vary across different fields in higher education, all effective competencies should contain the following key components:

Competencies should reflect the knowledge, skills, and abilities that professional organizations are seeking (Pearson, 2016). To ensure that competencies are relevant, programs and faculty might consult subject matter experts and professional stakeholders from the field to identify potential roles for graduates. Reviewing job descriptions and promotion criteria can assist in defining the competencies future graduates will need to succeed in those roles (Ford & Meyer, 2015). Many organizations publish standards or frameworks that can also serve as a helpful resource (Drisko, 2014). A few examples of published standards include:

• Education: National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS)
• Nursing: American Nurses Association (ANA)
• Social work: Council on Social Work Education (CSWE)
• Human resources: Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM)
• Accounting: American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA)
• Law: American Bar Association (ABA)

These standards, combined with input from experts in each field, should serve as a foundation for course- and program-level competencies. For instance, faculty in a Master’s in Social Work program might use the Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards for Baccalaureate and Master's Social Work Programs to define a competency such as students will incorporate culturally responsive methods when working with and on behalf of clients and constituencies. However, a competency such as students will feel passionate about helping others in their community might be an admirable goal, but is rooted in personal philosophy rather than aligned with industry standards.

All competencies must be directly linked to assessments and written in a way that can be measured to determine if a student has achieved them. Each competency should be measured multiple times using a variety of methods to ensure proficiency is truly achieved across a variety of contexts and environments (Pearson, 2016).

A measurable competency defines a skill or behavior that can clearly be observed. For example, in a Master’s in Education program, a measurable competency might be that graduates will be able to design standards-aligned formative assessments to measure student learning. Evaluators could observe proficiency of this competency through performance tasks, lesson plan analysis, or a teaching portfolio.

On the other hand, a competency that is not measurable would be difficult or impossible to assess. For example, a competency that states graduates will understand the importance of formative assessment lacks clarity and would require an evaluator to be subjective. While understanding the importance of formative assessment is valuable, this competency does not identify something that students can demonstrate.

Competencies should be written clearly and specifically to ensure both students and stakeholders understand expectations. When competencies are well-defined and easy to comprehend, students are better prepared to take ownership of their learning. While it is not required for competencies to be written in a way that those outside of the field could understand them, doing so can be valuable when possible (Albanese et al., 2008). For example, it may help students clearly articulate relevant knowledge to potential employers in their résumés and job interviews.

In a Master’s in Business course or program, a clear and specific competency could be that graduates will be able to apply evidence-based leadership strategies to improve employee motivation. This competency uses a clear, actionable verb and could be assessed using a case analysis, team simulation, or leadership strategy pitch.

A less clear competency might state that graduates will be effective leaders. Without defining what "effective" means or specifying the behaviors involved, students may be unsure of what is expected of them.

In order to maintain relevance and reflect changes in the field appropriately, competencies should be regularly reviewed and updated. Employers of recent graduates should be consulted for feedback regarding how well the current competencies prepare graduates for the workforce. As industry requirements and research evolve, competencies should be adjusted accordingly (Competency-Based Education Network [C-BEN], 2017).

Several years ago, a strong competency for a Master’s in Employment Law program might have been that students will be able to evaluate workplace policies in relation to key federal and state labor laws. While this is still an important skill, the field has recently seen increased emphasis on regulations involving remote work and anti-discrimination protections. To reflect these changes, the original competency could be updated to state that students will be able to evaluate workplace policies in relation to key federal and state labor laws, including emerging issues related to remote work and inclusive employment practices. Updating the competency with these current trends maintains its core purpose while making sure it remains relevant. As a result, this will better prepare future graduates to address challenges in the workplace.

Strong, well-defined competencies are essential in building a successful competency-based education program. When competencies are aligned with industry standards, measurable, clear, and regularly reviewed, they create a foundation that supports meaningful assessment, learning, and career readiness (C-BEN, 2021). As educational and industry landscapes shift, collecting feedback and maintaining strong collaboration with stakeholders will be key to keeping competencies relevant and impactful.

Albanese, M. A., Mejicano, G., Mullan, P., Kokotailo, P., & Gruppen, L. (2008). Defining characteristics of educational competencies. Medical Education, 42(3), 248–255.

Brauer, S. (2021). Towards competence-oriented higher education: A systematic literature review of the different perspectives on successful exit profiles. Education + Training, 63(9), 1376–1390.

Competency-Based Education Network (C-BEN). (2017). Quality framework for competency-based education programs.

Competency-Based Education Network (C-BEN). (2021). Hallmark practices in CBE assessment.

Drisko, J. W. (2014). Competencies and their assessment. Journal of Social Work Education, 50(3), 414–426.

Ford, R., & Meyer, R. (2015). Competency-based education 101. Procedia Manufacturing, 3, 1473–1480.

Harden, R. M. (2002). Learning outcomes and instructional objectives: Is there a difference? Medical Teacher, 24(2), 151–155.

Pearson. (2016). Defining competencies and outlining assessment strategies for CBE programs.

Wagenaar, R. (2014). Competences and learning outcomes: A panacea for understanding the (new) role of higher education? Tuning Journal for Higher Education, 1(2), 279–302.