Annotated Bibliography: Competency-Based Education in Higher Education

Competency-based education (CBE) is gaining momentum in higher education as a strategy to enhance flexibility, promote workforce alignment, and improve outcomes for adult and nontraditional learners. For institutional leaders, designing or expanding CBE programs requires not only a clear understanding of core CBE principles but also a strategic approach to implementation, curricular redesign, equity, and evaluation.

This annotated bibliography curates 19 scholarly and institutional sources selected for their high relevance to planning and managing CBE initiatives. It is designed for higher education administrators, academic leaders, and faculty developers seeking actionable insights and credible evidence to inform program design, policy development, professional learning, and student success initiatives. While most sources focus on U.S.-based models, this bibliography includes select international examples that broaden understanding of CBE implementation across diverse policy and cultural contexts.

Sources are organized into five thematic sections:

• Foundations and Frameworks for CBE introduces shared language, models, and definitions to establish a common understanding across academic and administrative teams.
• Institutional Strategy and Policy Readiness provides guidance on leadership, governance, compliance, and long-term sustainability.
• Curriculum Design and Faculty Development focuses on the instructional shifts and professional development needed to deliver high-quality CBE.
• Equitable Access and Institutional Contexts explores how CBE can support inclusion and institutional mission alignment.
• Learner Experience and Outcomes presents research on student satisfaction, program impact, and implementation processes.

This resource may support team training, internal planning, faculty development, grant proposals, or cross-functional conversations about educational innovation.

This section summarizes the most frequently recurring insights across the literature reviewed in this bibliography.

• Alignment between competencies, assessments, and learner supports is a core design principle across all thematic areas.
• Flexible pacing and modular structures are commonly highlighted as strengths of CBE, but they must be paired with clear feedback and scaffolding to prevent disengagement.
• Institutional readiness—including leadership alignment, faculty roles, and data infrastructure—is essential for sustainable implementation.
• While equity is frequently cited as a rationale for CBE, few studies provide robust data on outcomes for underserved learners. The Adult Learning BA (ALBA) program at All Hallows College (see Navarre Cleary & Breathnach, 2017) and Clawson and Girardi’s (2021) policy argument stand out in this regard.
• Longitudinal and comparative outcome studies remain rare, particularly outside of professional programs and U.S. institutions. This limits evidence of CBE’s long-term value.
• Frameworks and rubrics are widely referenced but often lack empirical validation or applicability across disciplines and institutional types.

Many of the sources in this section establish foundational definitions, frameworks, and quality markers for CBE programs. Common themes include the shift from time-based to outcomes-based learning; the role of clearly defined competencies; and the need for transparent, valid assessments. These sources lay the groundwork for understanding CBE's conceptual distinctiveness and institutional implications.

Gervais, J. (2016). The operational definition of competency-based education. The Journal of Competency-Based Education, 1(2), 98–106.

Keywords: operational model, assessment design, learning outcomes, flexible pacing, instructional design

Summary: Gervais develops an operational definition of CBE by synthesizing findings from an extensive literature review and interviews with five key informants experienced in CBE implementation. The resulting model emphasizes demonstrable student learning outcomes, individualized pacing, and transparent assessment structures aligned with real-world competencies. The author proposes a rubric for evaluating the extent to which academic programs embody core CBE principles, such as student-centered instructional design, mastery learning, curriculum integration, and assessment aligned with performance rather than time. Two delivery models—direct assessment and credit-hour–based CBE—are also discussed and differentiated.

Relevance: This article is particularly useful for institutional leaders and academic designers seeking definitional clarity and a conceptual framework to inform policy and program development. Instructional designers may find the rubric a helpful guide for course redesign, while faculty engaged in CBE initiatives can use it to better understand the instructional and assessment shifts required by the model.

Critical reflection: While the article offers a structured and theory-rich model, it relies on a small sample of expert interviews and lacks empirical testing of the rubric itself. Its generalizability may be limited by the narrow pool of informants and disciplinary focus on social work and allied professional fields. The definition is most useful for institutions in early planning stages but should be validated across more diverse institutional types and disciplines.

Krause, J., Dias, L. P., & Schedler, C. (2015). Competency-based education: A framework for measuring quality courses. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 18(1), 1–9.

Keywords: instructional design, quality standards, competency mapping, assessment design, program design

Summary: This article introduces a rubric developed to evaluate the quality of online CBE course design and to support Central Washington University's FlexIT program. The rubric includes 26 evaluative measures across seven categories: competencies and learning activities; assessment and evaluation; learning resources; technology and navigation; learner support; accessibility; and policy compliance. The authors argue that conventional online course rubrics often emphasize instructor-led pacing, peer interaction, and linear course navigation—elements that may be incompatible with self-paced, mentor-guided CBE programs. Instead, their rubric centers on alignment between competencies and assessments, clarity of instructions, and design features that support student autonomy and mastery learning.

Relevance: This article is particularly valuable for faculty or instructional designers developing asynchronous CBE courses and for academic leaders establishing internal course quality review processes. It provides actionable criteria for evaluating course design in programs where learners progress at individual rates and demonstrate proficiency through authentic assessments rather than accumulated seat time.

Critical reflection: While the rubric offers a structured approach tailored to the unique demands of CBE, it has not been externally validated or applied across diverse institutional contexts. However, a follow-up study (see Krause et al., 2015b in the Learner Experience and Outcomes section for details) applied the rubric to 12 new courses and examined the final assessment scores of nine students, finding a correlation between rubric scores and student outcomes. These preliminary findings suggest the rubric has potential value for linking design quality to student success, though further research is needed to assess its generalizability and effectiveness at scale.

McClarty, K. L., & Gaertner, M. N. (2015). Measuring mastery: Best practices for assessment in competency-based education. American Enterprise Institute.

Keywords: assessment design, performance measures, validity, fairness, quality standards

Summary: McClarty and Gaertner present a comprehensive set of best practices for designing, validating, and interpreting high-stakes assessments in CBE. The authors emphasize that CBE’s long-term credibility hinges on whether its assessments can validly demonstrate student mastery and predict future performance. The report outlines two core priorities for CBE providers: (1) developing valid, competency-aligned assessments and (2) setting cut scores based on empirical links to real-world outcomes such as job performance or academic success.

Relevance: This paper is highly relevant for administrators and faculty involved in CBE program design and accountability. It offers a step-by-step guide to collecting validity evidence, designing assessments that reflect authentic performance, and establishing cut scores that distinguish between mastery and non-mastery. Instructional designers will also benefit from the detailed discussion of performance-based assessments, competency frameworks, and the need for alignment between tasks and outcomes.

Critical reflection: While the recommendations are clear and actionable, they remain largely theoretical. The authors acknowledge that few CBE programs currently conduct the kind of rigorous validity or external-outcome research they recommend. Most examples come from related domains such as Advanced Placement testing or prior learning assessments. As a result, the best practices outlined have not been widely tested in CBE contexts. Institutions or programs with fewer resources for assessment may encounter greater difficulty implementing these principles at scale. Nonetheless, the report remains a foundational reference for raising the standards of assessment integrity and transparency in CBE design.

Competency-Based Education Network (C-BEN). (2018). Quality framework for competency-based education programs: A user’s guide.

Keywords: quality standards, program design, learning outcomes, evaluation frameworks

Summary: This user’s guide presents C-BEN’s Quality Framework: a set of 10 standards designed to define, guide, and evaluate high-quality CBE programs across institutional types and delivery models. Developed through a collaborative process with CBE leaders, accreditors, and system administrators from over 30 institutions and four university systems, the framework articulates shared principles for measurable competencies, authentic assessment, learner-centered pacing, and equity-minded design. Each standard is supported by developmental guides, performance indicators, and practical worksheets that help institutions benchmark current practices and plan for improvement. The guide also includes institutional illustrations, implementation questions, and infrastructure checklists tailored to a range of stakeholders—from registrars and instructional designers to financial aid and IT staff.

Relevance: This resource is especially valuable for provosts, deans, program leads, and cross-functional teams responsible for launching or refining CBE programs. It is also a useful tool for accreditation preparation and for institutions seeking to align internal quality review efforts with emerging field-wide expectations.

Critical reflection: While the framework is widely cited in both institutional planning and scholarly literature—such as in curriculum evaluation case studies at Walden University (McIntyre-Hite et al., 2018) and comparative analyses of CBE in health and higher education (Vasquez et al., 2021)—it remains a descriptive guide rather than a validated evaluation tool. It does not include empirical outcomes data or comparative benchmarks across institutions, and some components—such as equity standards and continuous improvement protocols—require local adaptation to be actionable. Nevertheless, its adoption by organizations like Western Governors University and reference in implementation resources from the American Institutes for Research affirm its status as one of the most comprehensive and widely used tools for institutional planning and CBE program design.

These sources address how institutions can plan, launch, and sustain CBE initiatives. While they vary in scope—from practical checklists to change management models—they consistently emphasize the need for cross-functional coordination, faculty engagement, and regulatory compliance. Together, they offer strategic insights for provosts, deans, and senior administrators preparing for institution-wide transformation.

Book, P. A. (2014). All hands on deck: Ten lessons from early adopters of competency-based education. Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education (WICHE).

Keywords: implementation planning, faculty roles, institutional strategy, change management

Summary: The author synthesizes insights from seven early CBE initiatives representing both course-based and direct assessment models. Drawing on interviews, institutional documents, and comparative analysis, the report highlights common implementation challenges, including faculty engagement, redesign of student support systems, governance structures, and integration with financial aid policies. It presents 10 operational lessons, offering practical guidance on issues such as staffing models, disaggregated faculty roles, IT infrastructure, and cross-functional coordination necessary for scalable and sustainable CBE implementation.

Relevance: This report is highly useful for academic leaders—including provosts, deans, faculty developers, and operational leads—seeking a strategic overview of CBE implementation challenges. It provides a pragmatic, field-informed foundation for institutional readiness assessment, particularly for institutions exploring stand-alone CBE units or cross-functional redesigns involving IT, financial aid, student services, and registrar systems.

Critical reflection: While the lessons are grounded in real-world examples, the report does not include formal evaluation data or long-term outcomes from the featured programs. Its case studies focus on relatively well-resourced institutions, which may limit its applicability to smaller colleges or minority-serving institutions. Still, it remains a foundational document in the CBE literature, cited frequently in policy and planning contexts for its accessible synthesis of early implementation insights.

Chen, A. M. H., Kleppinger, E. L., Churchwell, M. D., & Rhoney, D. H. (2024). Examining competency-based education through the lens of implementation science: A scoping review. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 88(2), Article 100633.

Keywords: implementation planning, faculty development, governance, evaluation frameworks, institutional strategy

Summary: This scoping review analyzes 25 studies of CBE in health professions using an implementation science framework. Drawing on literature from 2017 onward, the authors identify widespread variation in how CBE is implemented across programs in pharmacy, medicine, and nursing. Most programs used implementation science only partially, if at all. Common weaknesses included limited fidelity monitoring, inconsistent assessment of process, and fragmented alignment with institutional infrastructure. The review finds that more successful CBE efforts tend to be led by coordinated, team-based structures and are supported by faculty development and administrative engagement. However, the authors also expose a persistent gap: despite the potential of implementation science to guide complex educational change, few programs apply it comprehensively. Barriers may include limited awareness of the framework in academic settings, a lack of leadership expertise in change management, or insufficient integration with the culture of health professions. The article underscores the need for more deliberate and systematic application of implementation science to improve both the scalability and sustainability of CBE efforts.

Relevance: This review offers valuable insight for academic leaders, instructional designers, and program evaluators working in health professions education or considering the adaptation of CBE models. It provides a conceptual bridge between implementation research and educational practice, helping institutions assess not only what they implement but also how they implement it.

Critical reflection: While the article advances the field by highlighting a significant gap between theory and practice, it stops short of offering actionable implementation guidance or comparative outcome data. Its health professions focus may also limit transferability to non-clinical fields, particularly those without established competency frameworks or regulatory alignment. Nonetheless, the study makes a compelling case for integrating implementation science into CBE planning and evaluation—and raises important questions about institutional readiness, leadership capacity, and cultural fit that extend beyond the healthcare context.

Cunningham, J., Key, E., & Capron, R. (2016). An evaluation of competency‐based education programs: A study of the development process of competency‐based programs. The Journal of Competency-Based Education, 1(3), 130–139.

Keywords: implementation planning, institutional strategy, program design, assessment design, evaluation frameworks

Summary: This study examines the development and implementation processes of CBE programs through a survey of program leaders at five institutions. Using a 30-item survey, the authors explore decision-making structures, assessment design, content alignment, and student support strategies. Respondents reported using both industry experts and academic teams to define competencies, with practices varying widely across institutions. Assessment practices included authentic tasks, simulations, and objective tests, with an emphasis on alignment and validity. While some institutions followed backward design principles, others reported less consistent approaches to curriculum-assessment alignment. Institutions also used varied support structures—ranging from frequent faculty-student contact to adaptive technologies—to promote student mastery.

Relevance: The article offers practical insights for institutions navigating the early stages of CBE development. It highlights how CBE design decisions intersect with accreditation, financial aid structures, and faculty roles, particularly for institutions exploring hybrid or direct-assessment models. It is especially useful for teams working to align curricular design with both regulatory expectations and workforce relevance.

Critical reflection: Although the study surfaces important themes, its utility is constrained by a small and self-selected sample, reflecting only a narrow segment of early adopters. Many institutions were unable to participate because they had not yet progressed far enough in CBE development, underscoring the nascency of the field. Moreover, the article identifies emerging practices but does not validate them through longitudinal outcome data or external benchmarks. Still, it contributes a grounded snapshot of institutional strategy and implementation tensions in the formative phase of CBE adoption.

Dodge, L., Bushway, D. J., & Long, C. S. (2018). A leader’s guide to competency-based education: From inception to implementation. Routledge.

Keywords: institutional strategy, implementation planning, leadership, accreditation, compliance

Summary: This guidebook provides strategic and operational guidance for higher education leaders launching or expanding CBE programs. It addresses critical institutional functions—such as strategic alignment, accreditation and federal policy compliance, faculty and staffing structures, business processes, and IT systems integration—through a series of implementation checklists, planning questions, and institutional examples. Written by leading CBE practitioners with experience in academic leadership, national policy, and network coordination, the book frames CBE not as a discrete initiative but as a sustained, organization-wide transformation grounded in continuous improvement and mission alignment.

Relevance: This resource is especially valuable for provosts, deans, academic department leaders, and cross-functional teams engaged in institutional redesign. It offers actionable support for core tasks such as redesigning faculty roles, aligning student services, and navigating approval processes. Its practical focus on internal coordination, system readiness, and sustainable design makes it particularly relevant for institutions pursuing direct assessment or hybrid CBE pathways.

Critical reflection: Although the book is grounded in extensive practitioner experience, it does not include empirical evaluation of its frameworks or tools, nor does it offer comparative or longitudinal outcomes from the featured programs. Its emphasis on centralized coordination and scalable implementation may be more applicable to mid-size and large institutions with established infrastructure. Still, the depth of insight and field-tested guidance makes it one of the most comprehensive and practically useful planning resources available to institutional leaders exploring CBE.

Dragoo, A., & Barrows, R. (2016). Implementing competency-based education: Challenges, strategies, and a decision-making framework. The Journal of Continuing Higher Education, 64(2), 73–83.

Keywords: institutional strategy, implementation planning, change management, program design, evaluation frameworks

Summary: This qualitative study explores CBE implementation in business programs at three universities, using higher education change models to surface common institutional challenges (e.g., navigating trade-offs between cost and quality, aligning with existing program structures, and maintaining meaningful faculty-student interaction). Drawing on these cases, the authors propose a preliminary decision-making framework to help educational leaders plan and scale CBE initiatives.

Relevance: This article is useful for institutional leaders and program designers seeking early-stage planning guidance for CBE adoption. It surfaces complex design tensions—such as standardization versus flexibility—and emphasizes strategic decision points that affect long-term scalability and sustainability. It is especially relevant for academic teams exploring CBE within existing university governance systems rather than standalone models.

Critical reflection: The proposed decision-making framework, while conceptually grounded and practically informed, remains exploratory. It was developed from a small sample of early adopters and has not been tested or validated across varied institutional contexts. The lack of empirical evaluation or follow-up studies limits its generalizability. Nevertheless, the article contributes important implementation insights and offers a structured starting point for leaders navigating the organizational complexity of launching CBE programs.

Laitinen, A. (2012). Cracking the credit hour. New America Foundation.

Keywords: policy reform, accountability, systemic barriers, compliance, institutional strategy

Summary: This policy brief presents a comprehensive critique of the credit hour as an outdated and inadequate unit of measurement in U.S. higher education. Laitinen traces its origins to administrative and pension-related reforms rather than pedagogical principles and argues that the credit hour serves poorly as a proxy for learning. Drawing on historical evidence, empirical studies, and regulatory analysis, the report details how credit hours obscure learning outcomes, undermine accountability, and constrain innovation in delivery models and credentialing. The brief explores how time-based metrics limit credit transfer, distort faculty workload incentives, and impede students—especially working adults—from translating prior learning or workplace experience into academic credit. It also outlines how current federal financial aid regulations, despite recent efforts to modernize them, continue to reinforce seat time as the basis for awarding aid, even as online, asynchronous, and competency-based models grow. Laitinen highlights regulatory confusion and institutional risk aversion as key barriers to change, while identifying policy tools such as direct assessment, experimental sites, and outcomes-based frameworks as promising avenues for reform.

Relevance: This report is essential reading for policymakers, accreditors, and institutional leaders advocating for learning-centered reforms in higher education. It provides a clear, accessible rationale for shifting from time-based to outcomes-based systems, situating competency-based education within a broader movement to increase transparency, flexibility, and equity in credentialing.

Critical reflection: Although written before the widespread adoption of CBE models in the late 2010s, this report remains a foundational policy text. Its analysis is grounded in historical and regulatory detail but does not draw upon any systematic empirical testing of proposed alternatives. Still, its influence is evident in the framing of subsequent federal initiatives and accreditation guidance. As such, it serves as both a critique of inherited policy constraints and a call to action for systemic change.

McIntyre-Hite, L. (2016). A Delphi study of effective practices for developing competency-based learning models in higher education. The Journal of Competency‐Based Education, 1(4), 157–166.

Keywords: strategic planning, program design, implementation planning, quality standards

Summary: McIntyre-Hite uses a qualitative Delphi method to identify expert-validated practices for designing competency-based learning models in higher education. Drawing on three rounds of interviews with ten practitioners—including faculty, curriculum developers, and academic leaders—the study builds consensus around 49 effective practices across three domains: competencies, assessments, and learning resources. Participants emphasized the importance of backward design, alignment with employer and accreditation standards, and the need for measurable, authentic assessment aligned with program outcomes. While the study acknowledges diverse institutional philosophies and budget constraints, it highlights the role of faculty guidance, stakeholder engagement, and transparent competency statements in building coherent CBE programs. The findings fill a critical gap in the literature, offering one of the earliest structured syntheses of practitioner insights into CBE program development.

Relevance: This study serves as a strategic planning resource for academic teams launching or refining CBE programs. It offers a foundational set of vetted practices for institutions seeking to align their CBE models with workforce expectations, accreditation requirements, and pedagogical coherence. The emphasis on practical implementation detail makes it especially useful for program directors and instructional designers.

Critical reflection: Although the methodological approach surfaces consensus-driven insights, the sample size is small and drawn from a limited network of early adopters, raising questions about broader generalizability. The study does not include outcome data to validate the effectiveness of the recommended practices, and variation across institutional contexts suggests that adaptation will be necessary. Nonetheless, it remains one of the most detailed and practice-oriented guides to early-stage CBE model development.

The sources in this section focus on instructional and programmatic design features critical to CBE effectiveness. Topics such as backward design, authentic assessment, faculty roles, and professional development recur across entries. Collectively, they suggest that high-quality CBE depends not only on structural innovation but also on sustained faculty support and curricular alignment.

Johnstone, S. M., & Soares, L. (2014). Principles for developing competency-based education programs. Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, 46(2), 12–19.

Keywords: program design, instructional design, student support, competency mapping, assessment design

Summary: Johnstone and Soares outline foundational principles for developing competency-based education programs, drawing on insights from Western Governors University (WGU) and its community college partners. The article articulates five key principles: programs should reflect valid, employer-aligned competencies; allow for variable pacing with strong academic support; provide high-quality, reusable learning resources; include transparent mapping of competencies to curriculum and assessments; and use secure, reliable assessments. The authors emphasize that CBE is not simply a course design model but a structural innovation that reorients higher education around demonstrated mastery and real-world applicability. The article offers examples from national initiatives and institutional experiments, framing CBE as a strategy to align quality and affordability in postsecondary education.

Relevance: This source is especially valuable for academic leaders, curriculum designers, and institutional teams developing CBE within existing structures. It offers both philosophical grounding and practical guidance, making it suitable for planning discussions, cross-functional working groups, and new program development. The principles are adaptable across institution types and emphasize continuous improvement informed by industry and learner needs.

Critical reflection: While rich in practitioner insight and grounded in field-based experimentation, the article is descriptive and does not provide empirical outcomes or implementation data. It reflects an early-stage view of CBE reform and centers large-scale initiatives like WGU, which may not generalize easily to institutions with less centralized governance or fewer technological resources. Nonetheless, the principles remain highly influential and continue to inform design practices in both policy and institutional contexts.

Prokes, C., Lowenthal, P. R., Snelson, C., & Rice, K. (2021). Faculty views of CBE, self‐efficacy, and institutional support: An exploratory study. The Journal of Competency‐Based Education, 6(4), 233–244.

Keywords: faculty development, learner-centered teaching, implementation planning, institutional strategy

Summary: This study explores faculty perceptions of self-efficacy, instructional adaptation, and support mechanisms during the implementation of a new CBE program. Drawing on survey and interview data, the authors examine how faculty confidence and mindset influence their ability to transition into learner-centered, assessment-driven roles. The study also identifies institutional factors—such as leadership support, collaboration, and workload considerations—that either enable or hinder CBE adoption.

Relevance: This article is particularly useful for academic leaders and faculty developers planning professional learning initiatives for CBE adoption. It highlights practical considerations for supporting faculty as they shift toward new instructional models, including the importance of peer collaboration and targeted institutional support.

Critical reflection: The study's findings are limited to one community college and a relatively small sample, which may constrain generalizability. Nonetheless, it offers valuable insight into the faculty experience—an area underrepresented in CBE research—and underscores the need for deliberate investment in instructional change management.

This section highlights the potential of CBE to advance equity—particularly for adult learners, first-generation students, and racially minoritized populations. Several sources advocate for culturally responsive program design, accessible credentialing pathways, and reformed financial aid and hiring systems. Together, these works reframe CBE as a tool not just for efficiency but for systemic inclusion.

Clawson, S., & Girardi, A. (2021). Toward a national commitment to competency-based, equity-centered education. The Journal of Competency-Based Education, 6(1), Article e01246.

Keywords: equity, underserved students, career relevance, policy reform, flexible pacing

Summary: This article argues for a national strategy to scale CBE through an explicitly equity-centered lens. Drawing on data, case examples, and policy analysis, the authors identify structural barriers—such as degree-centric hiring, long and inflexible academic pathways, and inequitable access to high-value credentials—that disproportionately impact low-income, Black, and Latinx learners. They advocate for CBE as a more flexible, labor-aligned, and economically viable alternative that can improve access to workforce opportunities. The article offers specific policy recommendations, including modular learning pathways, reforms to financial aid eligibility, and greater employer engagement. A national commitment to CBE, they argue, could serve as a mechanism to reduce inequality, improve credential transparency, and connect more learners to living-wage careers.

Relevance: This article is especially useful for policymakers, workforce advocates, and institutional leaders focused on addressing systemic inequities through education. It supports strategy-setting for aligning CBE with labor market needs while foregrounding policy-level reform to ensure broad access. Institutions working with adult learners, returning students, or underserved populations will find its recommendations particularly apt.

Critical reflection: While the article provides a compelling vision for equity-centered CBE, it functions as a policy argument rather than an empirical study. Its proposals—such as national clearinghouses, credential transparency, and employer-aligned curriculum—are aspirational and lack tested implementation models. Nonetheless, the article offers a critical corrective to purely institutional or technical approaches to CBE by emphasizing the structural inequities such programs must address to fulfill their transformative potential.

Navarre Cleary, M., & Breathnach, C. (2017). Competency-based education as a force for equity. The Journal of Competency-Based Education, 2(1), Article e01040.

Keywords: equity, adult learners, underserved students, inclusive assessment, learner-centered teaching

Summary: This case study examines the Adult Learning BA (ALBA) program at All Hallows College, an open-admissions CBE initiative designed for adult learners in Ireland. With graduation rates more than double the U.S. average for adult students, the program demonstrates how CBE can advance equity when built around research-informed, learner-centered design. Key elements include modular credentialing, flexible pacing, culturally responsive support, and a holistic competence framework grounded in adult learning theory. The article emphasizes that intentional institutional culture—not just structural features—is essential for equitable outcomes.

Relevance: This article is especially valuable for institutional leaders and faculty seeking to design CBE programs aligned with diversity, equity, inclusion, and belonging (DEIB) goals. It offers a model for integrating modular credentialing, learner agency, and scaffolded support structures into a program that is intentionally equity-centered, not just structurally flexible.

Critical reflection: While ALBA’s outcomes are striking, its small scale, community-based structure, and deeply personalized learning environment may be difficult to replicate at larger institutions or in fully online models. Its success depended on a tightly integrated team and a mission-driven, non-commercial approach. However, the article offers a powerful counterpoint to critiques of CBE as a credentialing shortcut, showing that—with intentional design and cultural investment—CBE can promote meaningful educational access and transformation for underserved learners.

These sources offer evidence on how learners engage with and experience CBE programs. Recurring themes include flexible pacing, support structures, career alignment, and assessment clarity. Although most studies focus on short-term satisfaction or self-reported outcomes, they underscore the design choices that shape student success and persistence.

Krause, J., Portolese, L., & Schedler, C. (2015). A comparative study of competency-based courses demonstrating a potential measure of course quality and student success. The Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 18(4).

Keywords: student success, quality standards, program design, assessment design

Summary: This study investigates the relationship between course design quality and student performance in a CBE program. The authors applied a 26-item rubric to evaluate 12 undergraduate courses in Information Technology and Administrative Management and analyzed final assessment scores from nine students. Results suggest a positive correlation between higher rubric ratings—particularly in areas like content alignment, assessment quality, and instructional clarity—and stronger student outcomes. The study also highlights design gaps, including insufficient feedback mechanisms and limited mentor availability, that may hinder student progress.

Relevance: This article is useful for instructional designers, academic leaders, and faculty involved in CBE course development or evaluation. It offers an early attempt to empirically link design quality to student performance and provides a rubric-based approach that can inform internal review processes.

Critical reflection: Although the study provides preliminary evidence that structured course design contributes to student success, its findings are limited by the very small sample size and single-institution scope. The rubric has not been externally validated, and the study does not assess long-term outcomes or transferability across disciplines. Still, it contributes to a relatively sparse literature on empirical quality measures in CBE and can inform early-stage evaluation efforts.

Nousiainen, M. T., Mironova, P., Hynes, M., Takahashi, S. G., Reznick, R., Kraemer, W., Alman, B., & Ferguson, P. (2018). Eight-year outcomes of a competency-based residency training program in orthopedic surgery. Medical Teacher, 40(10), 1042–1054.

Keywords: longitudinal outcomes, medical education, program evaluation, residency training, learner progression

Summary: This article reports eight years of outcome data from a competency-based orthopedic surgery residency program at the University of Toronto—one of the first such programs in North America. The authors describe the program’s modular structure, curriculum mapping, performance benchmarks, and assessment processes, as well as feedback from residents and faculty. Findings show that some residents were able to complete their training more quickly than in traditional models without compromising competency standards, highlighting gains in program efficiency and learner progression.

Relevance: This study is valuable for academic leaders, assessment designers, and program evaluators interested in long-term CBE implementation. It provides a rare longitudinal data set, and its attention to progression pacing, feedback cycles, and modular curriculum offers a useful model for high-stakes professional fields.

Critical reflection: The study’s context—regulated medical education with nationally defined competencies, licensure requirements, and cohort-based progression—limits its generalizability to less standardized settings like undergraduate humanities or social sciences. Moreover, the article does not examine outcomes beyond training duration, such as clinical performance or long-term career impact. Still, it stands as one of the most rigorously documented examples of sustained CBE implementation and offers clear lessons in modular design, longitudinal assessment, and structural alignment.

Rivers, C., & Sebesta, J. A. (2017). “Right on the money”: CBE student satisfaction and postgraduation outcomes. The Journal of Competency-Based Education, 2(2), Article e01042.

Keywords: student satisfaction, adult learners, career relevance, performance measures, flexible pacing

Summary: This comparative study examines graduate survey data from a competency-based Bachelor of Applied Arts and Sciences (BAAS) program and a traditional counterpart at Texas A&M University–Commerce. With closely matched student demographics and course structures, the analysis isolates key differences in satisfaction and postgraduation outcomes. Graduates of the CBE program reported significantly higher satisfaction in areas such as faculty engagement, academic support, cost, and time to degree. They also reported lower student debt and more frequent job promotions compared to traditional program graduates. In a field still dominated by theoretical discussions and case studies, this article stands out as one of the few empirical comparisons of CBE and traditional models.

Relevance: This study offers institutional leaders, program designers, and policymakers valuable evidence on the practical benefits of CBE—particularly for adult learners managing work, education, and family. It reinforces the value of design features such as flexible pacing, applied learning, and cost control in driving learner satisfaction and perceived career impact.

Critical reflection: While the matched comparison design strengthens the study’s claims, limitations include reliance on self-reported data from a single institution and the absence of long-term career or wage tracking. Still, the findings provide compelling early evidence that well-designed CBE programs can meaningfully improve both the student experience and perceived postgraduation value.

Wang, J. (2015). The student perspective on competency-based education: Qualitative research on support, skills, and success. Young Invincibles.

Keywords: student satisfaction, adult learners, career relevance, learner-centered teaching, flexible pacing

Summary: This qualitative study draws on focus groups, interviews, and survey responses from over 800 young adults—including 83 enrolled in CBE programs—across institutions offering associate and professional-level credentials. Students cited flexible pacing, credit for prior learning, and career relevance as major strengths of CBE. Over 70% of CBE students reported feeling prepared for the workforce, compared to just one-third of their traditional peers. Many praised the ability to balance coursework with work and family obligations. At the same time, students identified challenges, including low motivation in self-paced environments, unclear assessment criteria, and minimal feedback. Vague “not-yet” grading and lack of peer interaction left some feeling isolated or unsure how to improve. While most CBE learners did not expect frequent face-to-face interaction, many still desired real-time academic support and more opportunities to develop soft skills. The report offers recommendations for improving communication, scaffolding, and technology design, and calls for additional research on outcomes and financial aid.

Relevance: This report is especially useful for institutional leaders, designers, and policymakers committed to building CBE programs around actual student needs. It offers direct insight into learner experience and highlights the structural and instructional features most likely to impact student success and satisfaction.

Critical reflection: Though broad in scope, the study is limited by its non-random sample and self-reported data. It also reflects early-stage CBE adoption, and its findings may not fully account for changes in practice since 2015. Still, it remains one of the most comprehensive accounts of student voice in the CBE literature and provides essential design and policy guidance for equity-minded implementation.

You can also download these references and our commentary about each via this BibTeX file.

McIntyre-Hite, L., Cheney, M., Weinstein Bever, S., Mast, L., & Hapka, A. R. (2018). CBEN's quality framework: A case study in its application to CBE curriculum quality standards at Walden University. The Journal of Competency-Based Education, 3(3), Article e01170.

Vasquez, J. A., Marcotte, K., & Gruppen, L. D. (2021). The parallel evolution of competency-based education in medical and higher education. The Journal of Competency-Based Education, 6(2), Article e1234.